Development and quasi-static experimental calibration of a novel lumped-mass tyre-wheel model for tyre envelope analysis

Accurate tyre modelling is essential for reliable ride-comfort analyses. Typical approaches, however, rely on numerous empirical parameters and complex calibration procedures that limit their physical interpretability and scalability. This study presents a parametric lumped mass tyre-wheel model specifically developed for the analysis of the tyre-enveloping behaviour over uneven terrains. The formulation, implemented in the time-domain, reproduces the structural behaviour of the belt, sidewalls and contact with the road. Model parameters are customised on an electric kick scooter tyre. Quasi-static experimental tests are conducted to identify the overall radial stiffness and the footprint dimensions as a function of the vertical load. An optimisation-based model calibration is designed to match the experimental evidence. The validated model is then used to simulate the tyre crossing cleats with different heights and under various loading conditions. A normalisation framework and a set of performance indicators are introduced to quantitatively assess and compare the tyre-enveloping capability. Results demonstrate that the proposed model provides a physically consistent tool for investigating tyre-road interaction and evaluating ride comfort over uneven road surfaces.