Chemical profile of 26 bottled water brands: Inorganic elements, organic constituents, and health risk assessment

Bottled water consumption has been continuously increasing, leading to a greater level of scrutiny among consumers regarding its composition and any perceived associated health risks. To date, there is limited understanding of the differences in water composition between brands of bottled water suppliers. This study presents a comparative survey of 26 bottled water brands from multiple countries, employing ICP-MS to characterize 37 inorganic elements and GC–MS/MS to qualitatively identify organic compounds. Substantial variability in element composition was observed among bottled water types, attributable to source water quality, treatment intensity, post-treatment formulation, and packaging interactions. Although most samples met Chinese drinking water standards (GB 5749–2022), 7.7% were above the sodium level recommended for infants and toddlers (T/WSJD 5–2024). All samples complied with the WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. For adults, bottled water samples contributed less than 10% of the recommended intake for most minerals, with the exception of waters rich in calcium, magnesium, or selenium. Health risk assessments based on hazard quotients and cancer risk calculations showed negligible non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk for adults under assumed exposure scenarios. Among detected organic compounds, farnesyl acetaldehyde, 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol, and dibutyl phthalate showed the highest frequencies. This study provides valuable insights into the inorganic and organic profiles of bottled water and their implications for human health.