Urban climate action in the Nationally Determined Contributions: exploring the multilevel climate governance gap

This study assesses the integration of urban climate action within Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. Analysing 194 updated NDCs, we investigated the level and type of urban-related content, including mitigation and adaptation challenges and responses, and means of implementation. Despite varied levels of urban content across NDCs, overall representation remains insuf cient, with one-third of the NDCs having no urban-related content. At the urban level, sectors like energy, transport, and waste receive more attention for mitigation, while infrastructures and water are given more focus for adaptation. Urban climate responses are more frequently mentioned than challenges, with few NDCs identifying dedicated means of implementation. Clear identi cation of urban challenges, responses, and means of implementation is crucial for assessing the effectiveness and monitoring the progress of climate interventions. This study provides insights useful for integrating multilevel governance and subnational engagement in supporting national climate plans and commitment.