Modelling Urban Heat Islands for Resilient Cities: From Building Energy Models to Standards and Policy Frameworks

Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects are increasingly recognised as a major challenge for climate resilience, urban sustainability, and public health. Buildings play a dual role: they are highly vulnerable to overheating while simultaneously contributing to urban heat through energy use and anthropogenic emissions. This review explores the modelling of UHI phenomena across scales, from single-building dynamic energy simulations to Urban Building Energy Models capable of capturing interactions between the built environment and the urbanmicroclimate. Particular attention is given to the drivers of UHI formation, the development of modelling tools such as Urban Weather Generator (UWG), and the growing need for harmonised methodologies and standards, including recent World Meteorological Organization (WMO) guidance. The article highlights the link between scientific evidence and regulatory frameworks, from European climate adaptation strategies to national and regional policies promoting passive cooling, reflective materials, and climate resilience planning. By bridging fundamentals, modelling advances, and policy implications, the paper aims to provide an integrated perspective on howUHI research can inform effective mitigation strategies and support the transition toward sustainable, resilient, and carbon-neutral cities.