Multiscale characterization of Ti-induced grain refinement in additively manufactured austenitic stainless steel

In-situ inoculation of grain-refining elements can effectively mitigate columnar grain growth and alleviate mechanical anisotropy in additively manufactured metals, while enhancing strength via the Hall-Petch effect. However, the refinement mechanism of Ti in austenitic stainless steel remains unclear. This study investigates Mn-assisted Ti inoculation in 316L stainless steel (SS316L), followed by annealing. Despite near-full densification, localized Ti enrichment formed coarse, brittle FeTi and C14 Laves intermetallic clusters, encapsulated by ultrafine ferritic grains within an austenitic matrix. Elevated annealing temperatures dissolved Laves phases and promoted Ti diffusion, resulting in dispersed TiO particles and ferritic domains. Refined Laves phases were redistributed to grain boundaries and triple junctions. Mechanical testing showed improved ductility with increasing annealing temperature: ultimate tensile strength decreased from 650 MPa to 610 MPa, while elongation rose from 13 % to 38 %. Hardness mapping revealed a more uniform distribution, though the maximum hardness dropped from 370 HV to 210 HV. Electrochemical corrosion tests in saline solution indicated that phase transformations induced by Ti-Mn co-inoculation undermined the corrosion resistance of SS316L, rendering it more susceptible to degradation in aggressive environments.