Automated identification of left ventricular hypertrophy using cardiac ultrasound imaging: A systematic review of artificial intelligence driven approaches

Left Ventricular Hypertrophy (LVH) is a significant cardiovascular risk marker that manifests in several clinical conditions, including Hypertension (HTN), Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD), and Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM). This systematic review examines Artificial Intelligence (AI) approaches for the automated identification of these conditions using cardiac Ultrasound (US) imaging. Following the PRISMA guidelines, 37 relevant articles (7 reviews, 30 research papers) published between 2010 and 2025 were analysed. The analysis revealed three primary methodological approaches: feature learning pipelines, end-to-end Deep Learning (DL), and hybrid methods that combine both techniques. For CKD detection, only one study using cardiac US was identified, which achieved 99.09 % classification accuracy using Support Vector Machine (SVM) with steerable Gaussian filters and entropy features. HTN classification studies have demonstrated high performance across different ap- proaches: traditional Machine Learning (ML) classifiers (decision trees with transform features: 99.11 %, weighted k-nearest neighbors: 98 %) and DL methods (Area Under Curve (AUC): 0.92–0.94). HCM studies ranged from binary classification (42.3 % of studies) to multi-class problems of increasing complexity (3-class: 38.4 %, 4- class: 11.5 %, 5-class: 7.6 %), with SVM achieving 95.2 % average sensitivity and DL models reaching an average AUC of 0.94. Current limitations include a predominant focus on binary classification problems, limited research on cardiac-based CKD detection, and a lack of standardized datasets. Future research directions include devel- oping hybrid methodologies that combine traditional and DL approaches, creating standardized multimodal databases, implementing explainable AI techniques, and integrating Internet of Things technologies for contin- uous monitoring.