Bioceramics: Status in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine seek biomaterials with potent regenerative potential in vivo. The bioceramics superfamily represents versatile inorganic materials with exceptional compatibility with living cells and tissues. They can be classified into three distinctive groups including almost bioinert (e.g., alumina and zirconia), bioactive (bioactive glasses (BGs)), and bioresorbable (e.g., calcium phosphates (CaPs)) ceramics. Regarding their physicochemical and mechanical properties, bioceramics have been traditionally used for orthopedic and dental applications; however, they are now being utilized for soft tissue healing and cancer theranostics due to their tunable chemical composition and characteristics. From a biological perspective, bioceramics exhibit great opportunities for tissue repair and regeneration thanks to their capability of improving cell growth and proliferation, inducing neovascularization, and rendering antibacterial activity. Different formulations of bioceramics with diverse shapes (fine powder, particles, pastes, blocks, etc.) and sizes (micro/ nanoparticles) are now available on the market and used in the clinic. Moreover, bioceramics are routinely mixed into natural and synthetic biopolymers to extend their applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine approaches. Current research is now focusing on the fabrication of personalized bioceramic-based scaffolds using three-dimensional (3D) printing technology in order to support large-volume defect tissue regeneration. It is predicted that more commercialized products of bioceramics will be available for managing both hard and soft tissue injuries in the near future, either in bare or in combination with other biomaterials.